path: root/verbs.tex

Verbs (or action words) are the main part of Lahu speech. Many complete sentences can be composed of just a verb and a particle (see example~\ref{ex:is-here}). Verbs in their infinitive form are usually written with the particle `ve' after them. This is usually separated by a space that is purely to assist the reader.

\begin{lahu-vocab}{Basic verbs used in the following sections}
\item[cawˬ ve] have, to
\item[caˇ ve] eat, to
\item[dawˬ ve] drink, to
\item[bvuh ve] write, to
\item[k'ai ve] go, to
\item[g'aw ve] read, to
\item[shiˍ ve] know, to
\item[te ve] do, to
\item[henˇ ve] study, to
\item[yawˆ yan te ve] pay respect, to
\end{lahu-vocab}

\section{Verb negation}
\label{sec:negation}
To negate the meaning of a verb the word `maˇ' is used \emph{before} the verb. The particle `ve' is often omitted when a verb is negated as example~\ref{ex:neg-verb} shows.
\begin{examples}
\item\label{ex:neg-verb}
\gll maˇ cawˇ
not eat
\gln
\glend
\item
\gll {Ngaˬ hui} {maˇ} {cawˬ}.
We not have
\glt `We do not have [it].'
\glend
\item
\gll {Yawˇ} {maˇ} {shiˍ}.
She not know
\glt `She does not know.'
\glend
\end{examples}


\section{Verb Combination}
Verbs can be combined in various ways to produce more complex ideas. A main verb can have an additional verb placed \emph{before} it (pre-head) or \emph{after} it (post-head). 

\subsection*{Pre-head Verbs}
Pre-head verbs are often used to indicate the number, aspect, time, limitiations etc..
\begin{examples}
\item
\gll g'a {cawˬ ve}
must have
\gln
\glend
\item\label{ex:must-go}
\gll g'a {k'ai ve}
must go
\gln
\glend
\item 
\gll h'aw {k'ai ve}
again go
\glt `to go again'
\glend
\item
\gll g'a henˇ ve
must study
\gln\glend
\item
\gll k'aw {hawˇ ve}
again study
\glt `to study again'
\glend
\end{examples}

Note in example~\ref{ex:must-go} that if the word `g'a' is placed \emph{after} the main verb it would be a different word meaning `to be able to'. Compare example~\ref{ex:able-go}.

\subsection*{Post-head Verbs}
\label{sec:post-head}
`Post-head' verbs often indicate the direction of the main verb.

\begin{examples}
\item
\gll caˇ {cawˇ ve}
eat should
\glt `should eat'
\glend
\item\label{ex:neg-post-verb}
\gll maˇ caˇ cawˇ
not eat should
\glt `should not eat'
\glend
\item
\gll hpaw k'ai ve
flee go
\glt `to flee away'
\glend
\item
\gll hpaw taˆ ve
flee up
\glt `to flee to higher point'
\glend
\item
\gll maˇ laˬ cawˇ
not come should
\glt `shouldn't come'
\glend
\item\label{ex:able-go}
\gll k'ai g'a ve
go can
\glt `[I] can go'
\glend
\end{examples}
Remember that the verb particle `ve' is omitted when the verb is negated, as example~\ref{ex:neg-post-verb} shows.

\section{Verb Duplication}
To intensify the effect of some verbs they can be duplicated. This is quite common in Lahu as it is in Thai.

\begin{examples}
\item
\gll {yawˆ yan} {te ve}
respect do
\glt {`to pay respect'}
\glend
\item
\gll {yawˆ yawˆ yan yan te ve}
{`to pay great respect'}
\gln
\glend
\item\label{ex:dup-verb}
\gll {maˇ ve}
`many'
\gln
\glend
\item
\gll maˇ maˇ {cawˬ ve}
many many have
\glt `to have many'
\glend
\item\label{ex:neg-dup-verb}
\gll maˇ maˇ maˇ cawˬ
many many not have
\glt `to have not many'
\glend
\end{examples}
In example~\ref{ex:neg-dup-verb} the last `maˇ' is the negative one. It can also be seen that example~\ref{ex:dup-verb} is not negative as the verb particle `ve' is present.

You should now be able to form many sentences using just nouns, verbs and some particles. 

\section{Verb Tense}
Verb tense in Lahu is denoted by means of suffixes. Not all tenses and aspects\footnote{English is quite a complex language in terms of tense, mood and aspect. This section of verb tenses is very simplified and does not try to map all the available English tenses, moods and aspects to Lahu.} in the English language can easily be expressed in Lahu so some of the following sections combine some English language concepts.

\subsection{Present Tense}
This is the `default' tense for verbs.
\begin{examples}
\item
\gll Ngaˬ te
I do
\gln
\glend

\item
\gll Yawˇ te
He does
\gln
\glend
\end{examples}

\subsection{Past Tense}
This describes actions that occurred in the past. The word \emph{peuˬ} is used after the verb to signify it is in the past tense.
\begin{examples}
\item
\gll Ngaˬ te peuˬ
I did
\gln
\glend
\item
\gll Nawˬ te peuˬ
You did
\gln
\glend
\end{examples}

\subsection{Perfect Tense}
\label{sec:perfect}
Perfect aspect can be described as an action that has been completed, for example, ``I have eaten rice''.
\footnote{This is actually termed the \emph{perfect aspect in the present tense} (or \emph{present perfect}) as it refers to an event that has been completed in the past (perfect aspect) from the viewpoint of the present (tense).} 
The particle \emph{peuˬ} is used as a suffix to denote the affirmative perfect tense.

\begin{examples}
\item
  \gll Yawˇ {gaˬ la} peuˬ
he arrive (par)
  \glt `He has arrived'
  \glend

  \item
  \gll Ngaˬ awˬ caˇ peuˬ
I rice eat (par)
  \glt `I have eaten rice'
  \glend
  \end{examples}

  To denote the negative perfect tense the particle \emph{peuˬ} is omitted and \emph{maˇ~\ldots~sheˍ} wraps the verb. \emph{sheˍ} could be interpreted as `yet' so it would become ``not \emph{something} yet''.

  \begin{examples}
  \item
  \gll Yawˇ maˇ {gaˬ la} sheˍ
  he not arrive yet
  \glt `He has not arrived yet'
  \glend

  \item
  \gll Ngaˬ awˬ maˇ caˇ sheˍ
  I rice not eat yet
  \glt `I have not eaten [rice] yet'
  \glend
  \end{examples}

  \subsection{Future Tense}
  \label{sec:future}
  To speak in the future tense simply use the particle `tuˬ' \emph{after} the verb that is in the future but \emph{before} any final particle such as `yoˬ'.
  \begin{examples}
  \item
  \gll Ngaˬ li teˇ k'oˆ hta g'aw tuˬ yoˬ
I book one (clf) (par) read [will] (fp)
  \glt `I will read one book'
  \glend
  \item
  \gll {Yawˇ hui} maˇ yaw tuˬ
  they not speak [will]
  \glt `They will not speak'
  \glend
  \end{examples}

  \subsection{Continuous Tense}
  Continuous tense in English is primarily represented by adding `ing' to the end of a verb. To indicate continuous tense in Lahu add the verb `chehˇ' (to be) after the verb that is continuing. This is an example of a post-head verb (see section~\ref{sec:post-head}).
  \begin{examples}
  \item
  \gll Yawˇ k'ai {chehˇ ve} yoˬ
he go [continue] (par)
  \glt `He is going'
  \glend
  \item
  \gll Ngaˬ ngaˆ teˇ hkeh {oˇ ve} hta caˇ {chehˇ ve} yoˬ
I bird two (clf) those (par) eat [continue] (par)
  \glt `I am eating those two birds'
  \glend
  \end{examples}

  \subsection{Indefinite Perfect Tense}
  This is similar to the perfect tense (see section~\ref{sec:perfect}) except that it points to some more distant or less distinct time. In English we would perhaps use the word `ever' or `never'.

  \begin{examples}
  \item
  \gll Awˉsa-hteˉliˍ-a ngaˬ maˇ k'ai jaw
  Australia I not go ever
  \glt `I have never been to Australia'
  \glend

  \item
  \gll Awˉsa-hteˉliˍ-a yawˇ k'ai jaw
  Australia he go ever
  \glt `He has been to Australia'
  \glend
  \end{examples}

  \subsection{Imperative Mood}
  The imperative mood expresses commands or requests. In Lahu the particles `mehˍ' or `sheˍ' are used at the \emph{end} of the sentence. The word `sheˍ' is more forceful.
  \begin{examples}
  \item
  \gll Ngaˬ hta {maˍ laˇ} mehˍ
me (par) teach (par)
  \glt `Teach me'
  \glend
  \item
  \gll Awˬ caˇ sheˍ
rice eat (par)
  \glt `Eat rice!'
  \glend
  \item
  \gll Lo-e sheˍ
enter (par)
  \glt `Enter!'
  \glend
  \item
  \gll Laˬ mehˍ
come (par)
  \glt `Come'
  \glend
  \item
  \gll Mui sheˍ
sit (par)
  \glt `Sit!'
  \glend
  \item
  \gll Li teˇ k'oˆ hta g'aw mehˍ
book one (clf) (par) read (par)
  \glt `Read the book'
  \glend
  \end{examples}

  Negative commands simply use the word `taˇ' \emph{before} the verb. As with verb negation (see section~\ref{sec:negation}) the particle `ve' is omitted. The imperative particles `mehˍ' and `sheˍ' can also be used to give added meaning.
  \begin{examples}
  \item
  \gll Taˇ te
  don't do
  \glt `Don't do [that]!'
  \glend
  \item
  \gll Taˇ mui
  don't sit
  \glt `Don't sit!'
  \glend
  \end{examples}

  \subsection{Participles}
  Participles describe a type of verb, either the action is happening now (present participle), or the action happened in the past (past participle). The present participle is denoted by the word `tcuhˉ taˍ' added after the verb.

  \begin{examples}
  \item
  \gll k'ai {tcuhˉ taˍ ve}
  go continuous
  \glt `to go continuously'
  \glend

  \item
  \gll Yawˆ dawˇ {tcuhˉ taˍ ve yoˬ}
  he think continuous
  \glt `He is thinking'
  \glend

  \item
  \gll {Yawˇ hui} {bawˆ da} {tcuhˉ taˍ} lehˉ {laˬ ve yoˬ}
  they fight continuous and come
  \glt `They came fighting'
  \glend
  \end{examples}

  % TODO
  % subjunctive mood ??
  % causitive ??
  % More grammatically correct discussion